Acupuncture (AK-yoo-PUNK-cher): The technique of inserting thin needles through the skin at specific points on the body to control pain and other symptoms. It is a type of complementary and alternative medicine.
AIDS: Acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (ah-KWY-erd im-YOON-o-de-FISH-en-see SIN-drome). A disease caused by the human immunodeficiency virus (HIV). People with AIDS are at an increased risk for developing certain cancers and for infections that usually occur only in individuals with a weak immune system.
Bacteria (bak-TEER-ee-uh): A large group of singlecell microorganisms. Some cause infections and disease in animals and humans. The singular of bacteria is bacterium.
BCG solution: A form of biological therapy for superficial bladder cancer. A catheter is used to place the BCG solution into the bladder. The solution contains live, weakened bacteria (bacille Calmette- Guérin) that activate the immune system. The BCG solution used for bladder cancer is not the same thing as BCG vaccine, a vaccine for tuberculosis.
Benign (beh-NINE): Not cancerous. Benign tumors do not spread to tissues around them or to other parts of the body.
Biological therapy (by-o-LAHJ-i-kul): Treatment to stimulate or restore the ability of the immune system to fight infections and other diseases. Also used to lessen certain side effects that may be caused by cancer treatment. Also known as immunotherapy, biotherapy, or biological response modifier (BRM) therapy.
Biopsy (BY-op-see): The removal of cells or tissues for examination by a pathologist. The pathologist may study the tissue under a microscope or perform other tests. When only a sample of tissue is removed, the procedure is called an incisional biopsy. When an entire lump or suspicious area is removed, the procedure is called an excisional biopsy. When a sample of tissue or fluid is removed with a needle, the procedure is called a needle biopsy, core biopsy, or fine-needle aspiration.
Bone marrow: The soft, sponge-like tissue in the center of most large bones. It produces white blood cells, red blood cells, and platelets.
Brachytherapy (BRAKE-ih-THER-a-pee): A procedure in which radioactive material sealed in needles, seeds, wires, or catheters is placed directly into or near a tumor. Also called internal radiation, implant radiation, or interstitial radiation therapy.
Cancer: A term for diseases in which abnormal cells divide without control. Cancer cells can invade nearby tissues and can spread through the bloodstream and lymphatic system to other parts of the body. There are several main types of cancer. Carcinoma is cancer that begins in the skin or in tissues that line or cover internal organs. Sarcoma is cancer that begins in bone, cartilage, fat, muscle, blood vessels, or other connective or supportive tissue. Leukemia is cancer that starts in blood-forming tissue such as the bone marrow, and causes large numbers of abnormal blood cells to be produced and enter the bloodstream. Lymphoma and multiple myeloma are cancers that begin in the cells of the immune system.
Cell: The individual unit that makes up the tissues of the body. All living things are made up of one or more cells.
Chemotherapy (kee-mo-THER-a-pee): Treatment with drugs that kill cancer.
Clinical trial: A type of research study that tests how well new medical interventions work in people. Such studies test new methods of screening, prevention, diagnosis, or treatment of a disease. Studies may be carried out in a clinic or other medical facility. Also called a clinical study.
Colonoscopy (ko-lun-AHS-ko-pee): An examination of the inside of the colon using a thin, lighted tube (called a colonoscope) inserted into the rectum. If abnormal areas are seen, tissue can be removed and examined under a microscope to determine whether disease is present.
Complementary and alternative medicine: CAM. Forms of treatment that are used in addition to (complementary) or instead of (alternative) standard treatments. These practices generally are not considered standard medical approaches. Standard treatments have gone through a long and careful research process to prove they are safe and effective, but less is known about CAM. CAM may include dietary supplements, megadose vitamins, herbal preparations, special teas, acupuncture, massage therapy, magnet therapy, spiritual healing, and meditation.
CT scan: Computed tomography scan. A series of detailed pictures of areas inside the body taken from different angles; the pictures are created by a computer linked to an x-ray machine. Also called computerized tomography and computerized axial tomography (CAT) scan.
Diethylstilbestrol (dye-ETH-ul-stil-BES-trol): DES. A synthetic form of the hormone estrogen that was prescribed to pregnant women between about 1940 and 1971 because it was thought to prevent miscarriages. DES may increase the risk of uterine, ovarian, or breast cancer in women who took it. DES also has been linked to an increased risk of clear cell carcinoma of the vagina or cervix in daughters exposed to DES before birth.
Dietitian: A health professional with special training in nutrition who can help with dietary choices. Also called a nutritionist.
Digestive tract (dye-JES-tiv): The organs through which food and liquids pass when they are swallowed, digested, and eliminated. These organs are the mouth, esophagus, stomach, small and large intestines, and rectum.
Digital rectal exam: DRE. An examination in which a doctor inserts a lubricated, gloved finger into the rectum to feel for abnormalities.
Double-contrast barium enema: A procedure in which x-rays of the colon and rectum are taken after a liquid containing barium is put into the rectum. Barium is a silver-white metallic compound that outlines the colon and rectum on an x-ray and helps show abnormalities. Air is put into the rectum and colon to further enhance the x-ray.
Epstein-Barr virus: EBV. A common virus that remains dormant in most people. It has been associated with certain cancers, including Burkitt’s lymphoma, immunoblastic lymphoma, and nasopharyngeal carcinoma.
Estrogen (ES-tro-jin): A hormone that promotes the
development and maintenance of female sex
characteristics.
Excisional biopsy (ek-SI-zhun-al BY-op-see): A surgical procedure in which an entire lump or suspicious area is removed for diagnosis. The tissue is then examined under a microscope.
External radiation (ray-dee-AY-shun): Radiation therapy that uses a machine to aim high-energy rays at the cancer. Also called external-beam radiation.
Fecal occult blood test (FEE-kul o-KULT): FOBT. A test to check for blood in stool. (Fecal refers to stool; occult means hidden.)
Fertility (fer-TIL-i-tee): The ability to produce children.
Gene: The functional and physical unit of heredity passed from parent to offspring. Genes are pieces of DNA, and most genes contain the information for making a specific protein.
Genetic testing: Analyzing DNA to look for a genetic alteration that may indicate an increased risk for developing a specific disease or disorder.
Helicobacter pylori (HEEL-ih-ko-BAK-ter pye-LOR-ee): H. pylori. Bacteria that cause inflammation and ulcers in the stomach and small intestine.
Hematologist (hee-ma-TOL-o-jist): A doctor who specializes in treating blood disorders.
Hepatitis B virus: A virus that causes hepatitis (inflammation of the liver). It is carried and passed to others through blood or sexual contact. Also, infants born to infected mothers may become infected with the virus.
Hepatitis C virus: A virus that causes hepatitis (inflammation of the liver). It is carried and passed to others through blood or sexual contact. Also, infants born to infected mothers may become infected with the virus.
Hormone: A chemical made by glands in the body. Hormones circulate in the bloodstream and control the actions of certain cells or organs. Some hormones can also be made in a laboratory.
Hormone therapy: Treatment that adds, blocks, or removes hormones. For certain conditions (such as diabetes or menopause), hormones are given to adjust low hormone levels. To slow or stop the growth of certain cancers (such as prostate and breast cancer), hormones may be given to block the body’s natural hormones. Sometimes surgery is needed to remove the gland that makes hormones. Also called hormonal therapy, hormone treatment, or endocrine therapy.
Human herpesvirus 8: HHV8. A member of the herpes family of viruses. It is a risk factor for Kaposi’s sarcoma, a rare cancer that can cause skin lesions.
Human immunodeficiency virus: HIV. The cause of acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS).
Human papillomavirus (pap-ih-LO-ma-VYE-rus): HPV. A virus that causes abnormal tissue growth (warts) and is associated with some types of cancer.
Human T-cell leukemia virus type 1: A retrovirus that infects T cells (a type of white blood cell) and can cause leukemia and lymphoma. HTLV-1 is spread by sharing syringes or needles used to inject drugs, through sexual contact, and from mother to child at birth or through breast-feeding.
Imaging procedure: A method of producing pictures of areas inside the body.
Implant radiation (ray-dee-AY-shun): A procedure in which radioactive material sealed in needles, seeds, wires, or catheters is placed directly into or near a tumor. Also called brachytherapy, internal radiation, or interstitial radiation.
Incisional biopsy (in-SIH-zhun-al BY-op-see): A surgical procedure in which a portion of a lump or suspicious area is removed for diagnosis. The tissue is then examined under a microscope.
Infection: Invasion and multiplication of germs in the body. Infections can occur in any part of the body, and can spread throughout the body. The germs may be bacteria, viruses, yeast, or fungi. They can cause a fever and other problems, depending on where the infection occurs. When the body’s natural defense system is strong, it can often fight the germs and prevent infection. Cancer treatment can weaken the natural defense system.
Infertility: The inability to produce children.
Internal radiation (ray-dee-AY-shun): A procedure in which radioactive material sealed in needles, seeds, wires, or catheters is placed directly into or near a tumor. Also called brachytherapy, implant radiation, or interstitial radiation therapy.
Ionizing radiation (EYE-ah-NIZE-ing ray-dee-AYshun): A type of high-frequency radiation produced by x-ray procedures, radioactive substances, rays that enter the Earth’s atmosphere from outer space, and other sources. Ionizing radiation can enter cells and lead to health risks, including cancer, at certain doses.
Leukemia (loo-KEE-mee-a): Cancer that starts in blood-forming tissue such as the bone marrow, and causes large numbers of blood cells to be produced and enter the bloodstream.
Leukocyte (LOO-ko-site): A white blood cell. Refers to a blood cell that does not contain hemoglobin. White blood cells include lymphocytes, neutrophils, eosinophils, macrophages, and mast cells. These cells are made by bone marrow and help the body fight infection and other diseases.
Local therapy: Treatment that affects cells in the tumor and the area close to it.
Lymph node (limf node): A rounded mass of lymphatic tissue that is surrounded by a capsule of connective tissue. Lymph nodes filter lymph (lymphatic fluid), and they store lymphocytes (white blood cells). They are located along lymphatic vessels. Also called a lymph gland.
Lymphatic system (lim-FAT-ik SIS-tem): The tissues and organs that produce, store, and carry white blood cells that fight infections and other diseases. This system includes the bone marrow, spleen, thymus, lymph nodes, and lymphatic vessels (a network of thin tubes that carry lymph and white blood cells). Lymphatic vessels branch, like blood vessels, into all the tissues of the body.
Lymphoma (lim-FO-ma): Cancer that begins in cells of the immune system.
Malignant (ma-LIG-nant): Cancerous. Malignant tumors can invade and destroy nearby tissue and spread to other parts of the body.
Mammogram (MAM-o-gram): An x-ray of the breast.
Medical oncologist (MED-i-kul on-KOL-o-jist): A doctor who specializes in diagnosing and treating cancer using chemotherapy, hormonal therapy, and biological therapy. A medical oncologist often is the main health care provider for someone who has cancer. A medical oncologist also provides supportive care and may coordinate treatment provided by other specialists.
Melanoma (MEL-ah-NO-ma): A form of skin cancer that arises in melanocytes, the cells that produce pigment. Melanoma usually begins in a mole.
Menopausal hormone therapy: Hormones (estrogen, progesterone, or both) given to women after menopause to replace the hormones no longer produced by the ovaries. Also called hormone replacement therapy or HRT.
Menopause (MEN-o-pawz): The time of life when a woman’s menstrual periods stop permanently. Also called “change of life.”
Metastasis (meh-TAS-ta-sis): The spread of cancer from one part of the body to another. A tumor formed by cells that have spread is called a “metastatic tumor” or a “metastasis.” The metastatic tumor contains cells that are like those in the original (primary) tumor. The plural form of metastasis is metastases (meh-TAS-taseez).
Mole: A benign growth on the skin (usually tan, brown, or flesh-colored) that contains a cluster of melanocytes and surrounding supportive tissue.
MRI: Magnetic resonance imaging (mag-NET-ik REZ-o-nans IM-a-jing). A procedure in which radio waves and a powerful magnet linked to a computer are used to create detailed pictures of areas inside the body. These pictures can show the difference between normal and diseased tissue. MRI makes better images of organs and soft tissue than other scanning techniques, such as CT or x-ray. MRI is especially useful for imaging the brain, spine, the soft tissue of joints, and the inside of bones. Also called nuclear magnetic resonance imaging.
Mutation: Any change in the DNA of a cell. Mutations may be caused by mistakes during cell division, or they may be caused by exposure to DNA-damaging agents in the environment. Mutations can be harmful,  beneficial, or have no effect. If they occur in cells that make eggs or sperm, they can be inherited; if mutations occur in other types of cells, they are not inherited. Certain mutations may lead to cancer or other diseases.
Organ: A part of the body that performs a specific function. For example, the heart is an organ.
Pap test: The collection of cells from the cervix for examination under a microscope. It is used to detect cancer and changes that may lead to cancer. Also called a Pap smear.
Pathologist (pa-THOL-o-jist): A doctor who identifies diseases by studying cells and tissues under a microscope.
PET scan: Positron emission tomography scan. A procedure in which a small amount of radioactive glucose (sugar) is injected into a vein, and a scanner is used to make detailed, computerized pictures of areas inside the body where the glucose is used. Because cancer cells often use more glucose than normal cells, the pictures can be used to find cancer cells in the body.
Polyp (POL-ip): A growth that protrudes from a mucous membrane.
Primary tumor: The original tumor.
Progestin (pro-JES-tin): Any natural or laboratorymade substance that has some or all of the biologic effects of progesterone, a female hormone.
Quality of life: The overall enjoyment of life. Many clinical trials assess the effects of cancer and its treatment on the quality of life. These studies measure aspects of an individual’s sense of well-being and ability to carry out various activities.
Radiation oncologist (ray-dee-AY-shun on-KOLo- jist): A doctor who specializes in using radiation to treat cancer.
Radiation therapy (ray-dee-AY-shun THER-ah-pee): The use of high-energy radiation from x-rays, gamma rays, neutrons, and other sources to kill cancer cells and shrink tumors. Radiation may come from a machine outside the body (external-beam radiation therapy), or it may come from radioactive material placed in the body near cancer cells (internal radiation therapy, implant radiation, or brachytherapy). Systemic radiation therapy uses a radioactive substance, such as a radiolabeled monoclonal antibody, that circulates throughout the body. Also called radiotherapy.
Radioactive: (RAY-dee-o-AK-tiv): Giving off radiation.
Radioactive fallout (RAY-dee-o-AK-tiv): Airborne radioactive particles that fall to the ground during and after an atomic bombing, nuclear weapons test, or nuclear plant accident.
Radionuclide scan (RAY-dee-o-NEW-klide): A test that produces pictures (scans) of internal parts of the body. The person is given an injection or swallows a small amount of radioactive material; a machine called a scanner then measures the radioactivity in certain organs.
Radon (RAY-don): A radioactive gas that is released by uranium, a substance found in soil and rock. Breathing in too much radon can damage lung cells and lead to lung cancer.
Recurrence: The return of cancer, at the same place as the original (primary) tumor or in another location, after the tumor had disappeared.
Risk factor: Something that may increase the chance of developing a disease. Some examples of risk factors for cancer include age, a family history of certain cancers, use of tobacco products, certain eating habits, obesity, exposure to radiation or other cancer-causing agents, and certain genetic changes.
Screening: Checking for disease when there are no symptoms.
Side effect: A problem that occurs when treatment affects healthy tissues or organs. Some common side effects of cancer treatment are fatigue, pain, nausea, vomiting, decreased blood cell counts, hair loss, and mouth sores.
Sigmoidoscopy (sig-moid-OSS-ko-pee): Inspection of the lower colon using a thin, lighted tube called a sigmoidoscope. Samples of tissue or cells may be collected for examination under a microscope. Also called proctosigmoidoscopy.
Sonogram (SAHN-o-gram): A computer picture of areas inside the body created by bouncing high-energy sound waves (ultrasound) off internal tissues or organs. Also called an ultrasonogram.
Spiral CT scan: A detailed picture of areas inside the body. The pictures are created by a computer linked to an x-ray machine that scans the body in a spiral path. Also called helical computed tomography.
Stage: The extent of a cancer within the body. Staging it based on the size of the tumor, whether lymph nodes contain cancer, and whether the disease has spread from the original site to other parts of the body.
Stem cell: A cell from which other types of cells develop. Blood cells develop from blood-forming stem cells.
Stem cell transplantation: A method of replacing immature blood-forming cells that were destroyed by cancer treatment. The stem cells are given to the person after treatment to help the bone marrow recover and continue producing healthy blood cells.
Supportive care: Care given to improve the quality of life of patients who have a serious or life-threatening disease. The goal of supportive care is to prevent or treat as early as possible the symptoms of the disease, side effects caused by treatment of the disease, and psychological, social, and spiritual problems related to the disease or its treatment. Also called palliative care, comfort care, and symptom management.
Surgeon: A doctor who removes or repairs a part of the body by operating on the patient.
Surgery (SER-juh-ree): A procedure to remove or repair a part of the body or to find out whether disease is present. An operation.
Symptom: An indication that a person has a condition or disease. Some examples of symptoms are headache, fever, fatigue, nausea, vomiting, and pain.
Systemic therapy (sis-TEM-ik THER-a-pee): Treatment using substances that travel through the bloodstream, reaching and affecting cells all over the body.
Thyroid (THIGH-royd): A gland located beneath the voice box (larynx) that produces thyroid hormone. The thyroid helps regulate growth and metabolism.
Tissue (TIH-shoo): A group or layer of cells that are alike and that work together to perform a specific function.
Tumor (TOO-mer): A mass of excess tissue that results from abnormal cell division. Tumors perform no useful body function. They may be benign (not cancerous) or malignant (cancerous).
Tumor marker: A substance sometimes found in the blood, other body fluids, or tissues. A high level of tumor marker may mean that a certain type of cancer is in the body. Examples of tumor markers include CA 125 (ovarian cancer), CA 15-3 (breast cancer), CEA (ovarian, lung, breast, pancreas, and gastrointestinal tract cancers), and PSA (prostate cancer). Also called biomarker.
Ultrasound: A procedure in which high-energy sound waves (ultrasound) are bounced off internal tissues or organs and make echoes. The echo patterns are shown on the screen of an ultrasound machine, forming a picture of body tissues called a sonogram. Also called ultrasonography.
Ultraviolet radiation (ul-tra-VYE-o-let ray-dee- AY-shun): UV radiation. Invisible rays that are part of the energy that comes from the sun. UV radiation also comes from sun lamps and tanning beds. UV radiation can damage the skin and cause melanoma and other types of skin cancer. UV radiation that reaches the Earth’s surface is made up of two types of rays, called UVA and UVB rays. UVB rays are more likely than UVA rays to cause sunburn, but UVA rays pass deeper into the skin. Scientists have long thought that UVB radiation can cause melanoma and other types of skin cancer. They now think that UVA radiation also may add to skin damage that can lead to skin cancer and cause premature aging. For this reason, skin specialists recommend that people use sunscreens that reflect, absorb, or scatter both kinds of UV radiation.
Virtual colonoscopy (ko-lun-AHS-ko-pee): A method under study to examine the colon by taking a series of x-rays (called a CT scan) and using a high-powered computer to reconstruct 2-D and 3-D pictures of the interior surfaces of the colon from these x-rays. The pictures can be saved, manipulated to better viewing angles, and reviewed after the procedure, even years later. Also called computed tomography colography.
Virus (VYE-rus): A microorganism that can infect cells and cause disease.
X-ray: A type of high-energy radiation. In low doses, x-rays are used to diagnose diseases by making pictures of the inside of the body. In high doses, x-rays are used to treat cancer.

Cancer is an unwanted purposeless and unchecked growth of any body tissue, with a capability of spreading to other areas. Most cervical cancers are squamous cell carcinomas. Squamous cells are thin, flat cells that form the surface of the cervix.

The cervix is the lower, narrow part of the uterus (womb). The uterus, a hollow, pear-shaped organ, is located in the lower abdomen. The cervix forms a canal that opens into the vagina, which leads to the outside of the body.

Who is at risk in developing cancer of the cervix?

Researchers have identified certain risk factors that increase the chance that cells in the cervix will become abnormal or cancerous. Initiation of sexual intercourse before age 18, many sexual partners, early age of marriage, first pregnancy at an early age, four or more number of pregnancies and women with poor personal hygiene, have an increased risk of cervical cancer.

Women who have had many sexual partners or whose partners have had many sexual partners may have an increased risk of cervical cancer at least in part because they are more likely to get a sexually transmitted virus. Scientist believes that some of these viruses may cause the growth of abnormal cells in the cervix and may play a role in cancer development.

What are the symptoms of cervical cancer?

* Bleeding after sexual intercourse
* Bleeding in between menses or post menopausal bleeding
* Excessive white discharge (leucorrhea)

How can cancer of the cervix be diagnosed?

When we visit a doctor with a problem, the doctor first listens to our complaints in detail and then examines us. In a pelvic exam, the doctor checks the uterus, vagina, ovaries, fallopian tubes, bladder and rectum. The doctor feels these organs for any abnormality in their shape or size. An instrument called a speculum is inserted into the vagina. This holds the walls of the vagina apart so that the doctor can see the upper part of the vagina and the cervix. The doctor may then recommend certain tests such as Pap smears, colposcopy, biopsy etc. The pelvic exam and Pap test allow the doctor to detect abnormal changes in the cervix. If these examinations show that an infection is present, the doctor treats the infection and then repeats the Pap test at a later time. If the examinations or Pap test suggests something other than an infection, the doctor may do other tests to find out what the problem is.

Pap Smear

The Pap smear test is an easy way to detect early changes in cells of the cervix, the lower end of the uterus or womb. A Pap smear is taken during an internal examination of the vagina. A speculum is inserted into the vagina and some cells are then taken from the cervix using a small spatula and smeared on a glass slide and sent to a medical laboratory to be checked for abnormality. It is important that all women have a Pap smear test every two years.

Colposcopy is a widely used method to check the cervix for abnormal areas.

These tests may not show for sure whether the abnormal cells are present only on the surface of the cervix. In that case, the doctor will remove a larger, cone-shaped sample of tissue. This procedure, called conization or cone biopsy, allows the pathologist to see whether the abnormal cells have invaded tissue beneath the surface of the cervix. Conization also may be used as treatment for a pre cancerous lesion if the entire abnormal area can be removed.

Early detection

If all women had pelvic exams and pap tests regularly, most pre cancerous conditions would be detected and treated before cancer develops. Abnormal Pap smear test does not necessarily mean patient is suffering from cancer, but may indicate a pre cancerous stage. Scientists believe that some abnormal changes in cells on the cervix are the first step in a series of slow changes that can lead to cancer years later. Appropriate treatment at this time can prevent development of cancer. The patient then needs to be closely followed. That’s why it is recommended to have a Pap smear done every two years. That way, most invasive cancers could be prevented. Any invasive cancer that does occur would likely be found at an early, curable stage.

How can cancer of the cervix be treated?

Treatment depends on a number of factors, age, location and size of the tumor, including the stage of the disease and the general health of the patient. Staging is a careful attempt to find out whether the cancer has spread and, if so, what parts of the body are affected. Many different treatments and combination of treatments are used to treat cancer of the cervix. The three common modes of cancer treatment are surgery, radiation therapy and chemotherapy. Radiation therapy is the mainstay in the treatment of the cancer of the cervix.

Radiation therapy involves subjecting the cancer-bearing region to radiation. Ionizing radiation damages or destroys the cancer cells and prevents them from growing and multiplying. Normally the treatment is divided over a period of one month, during which fixed doses of radiation are delivered each day. Radiation affects both normal as well as abnormal tissues while ensuring sustained tumor destruction. Usually most of the radiation treatment is given as an outpatient procedure. Radiotherapy treatment in itself is painless just like an X-ray, and may take anything from a few seconds to several minutes.

The different radiation therapies involve delivering radiation either from close quarters or from a distance. Radiation therapy where the source of radiation is close to the tumor is referred to as Brachytherapy. Therapy, where the radiation source is located away from the tumor is referred to as Teletherapy. Brachytherapy is mostly delivered by directly implanting radioactive wires or seeds into the tumor, while Teletherapy is given by using fixed machines.

Surgery is one of the commonly used modes of cancer treatment, wherein the surgeon removes a localized tumor.

Chemotherapy is treatment of cancer by drugs. Cancer chemotherapy employs cytotoxic drugs capable of arresting fast cellular growth. Chemotherapy also affects other fast growing and dividing normal cells in the body. The treatment is given in cyclic form once in 3 to 4 weeks, to allow for adequate recovery of normal tissues and to ensure that cancer cells are killed at the same time. Chemotherapy and Radiation therapy may cause side effects, but most side effects of radiotherapy and chemotherapy are reversible after treatment is over.

Follow-up care

Regular follow-up examinations including a pelvic exam, a Pap test, and other laboratory tests are very important for any woman who has been treated for pre cancerous changes or for cancer of the cervix. The doctor will do these tests and exams frequently for several years.

What is lung cancer?

Cancer is an unwanted purposeless and unchecked growth of any body tissue, with a capability of spreading to other areas. Cancer that begins in the lung is called lung cancer. There are four major types of lung cancer, which fall under 2 broad groups.

* Small cell lung cancer or oat cell cancer (less common)
* Non small cell lung cancer (more common)
* Squamous cell (epedermoid cancer)
* Adenocarcinoma
* Large cell carcinoma

Who is at risk?

Researchers have discovered several causes for lung cancer, most are related to the use of tobacco.

* Smoking- Cigarettes, Beedies, Cigars and Pipe. Harmful substances (carcinogens) in tobacco damage cells in the lungs, the damaged cells may become cancerous. Over a period of time stopping smoking greatly reduces a person’s risk from developing lung cancer.
* Environmental Tobacco Smoke or passive smoking also increases the chance of developing lung cancer.
* Asbestos is the name of a group of minerals that occur naturally as fibers and are used in certain industries. Asbestos fibers tend to break easily into particles that can float in the air. When the particles are inhaled, they can lodge in the lungs, damaging cells and increasing the risk of lung cancer.
* Radon is an invisible, odourless and tasteless radioactive gas that occurs naturally in soil and rocks. It can cause damage to the lungs and may cause lung cancer. People who work in mines may be exposed to radon.
* Pollution – Researchers have found a link between lung cancer and exposure to certain air pollutants, such as by-products of the combustion of diesel and other fossil fuels.
* Lung Disease – Certain lung diseases, such as tuberculosis (TB), increase a person’s chance of developing lung cancer. Lung cancer tends to develop in areas of the lung that are scarred form TB.
* Personal Medical and Family History – A person who has had lung cancer once is more likely to develop a second lung cancer compared to a person who has never had lung cancer. Brothers, sisters and children of those who have had lung cancer have a slightly higher risk of lung cancer. However, it is difficult to say how much of this excess risk is due to inherited factors and how much is due to environmental factors.
* Other Mineral Exposures-People with silicosis and berylliosis (lung diseases caused by breathing in certain minerals) also have an increased risk of lung cancer.
* Researchers continue to study the cause of lung cancer and try to find ways to prevent it .We already know that the best way to prevent lung cancer is to quit (or never start) smoking.

What are the symptoms of lung cancer?

* Unexplained chronic cough
* Repeated attacks of lung infection
* Breathlessness, wheezing, hoarseness
* Sputum mixed with blood
* Constant chest pain
* Loss of appetite or weight loss
* Fatigue

Treating non small cell lung cancer

Patients with non-small cell lung cancer may be treated in several ways. The choice of treatment depends mainly on the extent of the disease. Surgery is the most common way to treat this type of lung cancer. Radiation therapy and chemotherapy may also be used to slow the progress of the disease and to manage symptoms.

Treating small cell lung cancer

Small cell lung cancer spreads quickly. In many cases, cancer cells have already spread in other parts of the body when the disease is diagnosed. In order to reach cancer cells throughout the body, doctors almost always use chemotherapy. Treatment may also include radiation therapy aimed at the tumor in the lung or tumors in other parts of the body (such as in the brain). Some patients have radiation therapy to the brain even though no cancer is found there. This treatment, called prophylactic cranial irradiation (PCI), is given to prevent tumours from forming in the brain. Surgery is part of the treatment plan for a small number of patients with small cell lung cancer.

The importance of follow-up care

Follow-up care after treatment for lung cancer is very important. Regular checkups ensure that changes are quickly noticed, and if the cancer returns or a new cancer develops, it can be treated as soon as possible. Checkups may include physical exams, chest X-rays or lab tests.

Some of the symptoms mentioned above are quite common in everyday illnesses and do not necessarily indicate cancer. Nevertheless, it is wise to pay heed to these symptoms and seek advice from your doctor. Early detection gives the best choice of cure.

How can lung cancer be diagnosed?

To help find the cause of symptoms, a doctor evaluates a person’s medical history, smoking history, exposure to environmental and occupational substances and family history of cancer. After clinical examination, x-ray of the chest is the starting point. If this does not help special x-ray examination called Tomography is undertaken. To confirm the presence of lung cancer, the doctor must examine tissue from the lung. The only way to make the diagnosis of cancer is to examine cells or tissues from the suspected lesion under a microscope by a pathologist; a procedure referred to as biopsy.

Bronchoscopy – The doctor puts a bronchoscope (a thin, lighted tube) into the mouth and down through the windpipe to look into the breathing passages. Through this tube, the doctor can collect cells or small samples of tissue.

Staging the disease

If the diagnosis is cancer, the doctor wants to know about the stage (or extent) of the disease. Staging is done to find out whether the cancer has spread and if so, to which part of the body. Knowing the stage of the disease helps the doctor plan treatmnet. Some tests used to determine whether the cancer has spread include:

CAT (or CT scan) computed tomographhy- A computer linked to an X-ray machine creates a series of detailed pictures of areas inside the body.

MRI (magnetic resonance imaging)-A powerful magnet linked to a computer makes detailed pictures of areas inside the body.

Radionuclide scanning-Scanning can show whether cancer has spread to other organs, such as the liver. The patient swallows or receives an injection of a mildly radioactive substance. A machine (scanner) measures and records the level of radioactivity in certain organs to reveal abnormal areas.

What are the treatments options for lung cancer?

Treatment depends on a number of factors, including the type of lung cancer (non-small cell or small cell lung cancer), the stage of the disease, and the general health of the patient. Many different treatments and combination of treatments are used to treat lung cancer. The three common modes of cancer treatment are surgery, radiation therapy and chemotherapy.

Surgery is one of the most commonly used modes of cancer treatment, wherein the surgeon removes a localized tumour. When the surgeon removes an entire lobe of the lung, the procedure is called a lobectomy. Pneumonectomy is the removal of an entire lung. The human lung has substantial reserve capacity and removal of a lobe or even one full lung does not severely incapacitate the person.

Chemotherapy is treatment of cancer by drugs. Cancer chemotherapy employs cytotoxic drugs capable of arresting fast cellular growth. Chemotherapy also affects other fast growing and dividing normal cells in the body. The treatment is given in cyclic form once in 3 or 4 weeks, to allow for adequate recovery of normal tissues and to ensure that cancer cells are killed at the same time.

Radiation therapy involves subjecting the cancer-bearing region to radiation. Ionizing radiation damages or destroys the cancer cells and prevents them from growing and multiplying. Normally the treatment is divided over a period of one month, during which fixed doses of radiation are delivered each day (five days/week). Radiation affects both normal as well as abnormal tissues. The schedule for radiation is planned in a way that it helps recovery of the normal tissues while ensuring sustained tumor destruction. Chemotherapy and radiation therapy may cause side effects, but most side effects of radiotherapy and chemotherapy are reversible after treatment is over.

Cancer is an abnormal growth of cells that grow uncontrollably to form a lump or tumour. Cancer cells have two properties that make them dangerous, they can invade into neighbouring tissues, and they can spread to distant areas of the body, forming secondary tumors or metastases.

Blood is made up of plasma and three types of blood cells -

* Red Blood cells (RBC) which carries oxygen from the lung to the body tissues.
* White Blood Cells (WBC) which help in defending the body against infections.
* Platelets which help in blood clotting and control bleeding.

White blood cells are of five types – lymphocytes, granulocytes, monocytes, eosinophils and basophils. Blood cells are produced in the bone marrow in an orderly fashion and only mature cells are released.

What is Leukemia?

Leukemia or blood cancer is a cancer of the white blood cells (WBC). In leukemia a large number of white blood cells are produced in the stem cells of the bone marrow. These immature cells are incapable of normal functions. Cancer starts in the bone marrow but can spread to the blood, lymph nodes, the spleen, liver, central nervous system (the brain and spinal cord), testes (testicles), or other organs.

Leukemia can be acute (rapid growing) or chronic (slowly growing). It can further be classified as myelogenous or lymphocytic, depending on which white blood cell type is affected. Thus, the four major types of leukemia are:

* Acute Lymphocytic Leukemia (ALL) – the most common type of leukemia in young children. It also affects adults, especial those older than 65 years.
* Chronic Lymphocytic Leukemia (CLL) – most often affects adults over the age of 55. It sometimes occurs in young adults, but it almost never affects children.
* Acute Myelogenous Leukemia (AML) – occurs in both adults and children. This type of leukemia is sometimes called acute nonlymphocytic leukemia (ANLL).
* Chronic Myelogenous Leukemia (CML) – occurs mainly in adults. Very rarely children may develop this disease.

What are the signs and symptoms of Leukemia?

In leukemia the marrow is busy producing abnormal white cells and not enough red blood cells are produced resulting in anemia. Patients look pale, feel weak and tired. Reductions in number of healthy platelets cause patients to bruise and bleed easily. Leukemia cells are functionally abnormal, hence the body cannot fight infections and thus patients often get infections and fevers.

Like all blood cells, leukemia cells travel throughout the body. Depending on the number of abnormal cells and where these cells collect, patients with leukemia may have a number of symptoms. In acute leukemia, symptoms appear and get worse quickly. People with this disease visit their doctor because they feel sick.

In acute leukemia, the abnormal cells may collect in the brain or spinal cord (also called the central nervous system or CNS). The result may be headaches, vomiting, confusion, loss of muscle control and seizures. Leukemia cells also can collect in the testicles and cause swelling. Also, some patients develop swelling in the eyes or on the skin. Leukemia affects the digestive tract, kidneys, lungs or other parts of the body.

Common symptoms seen in Leukemia are:

* Tiredness and lethargy (as a result of anemia)
* Pale complexion
* Frequent, prolonged or severe infections (as a result of impaired white cell function)

* Frequent bruising and bleeding (as a result of platelet deficiency)
* Tiny red spots (called petechiae) under the skin
* Swollen or bleeding gums
* Sweating , especially at night
* Bone or joint pain
* Loss of appetite and/or weight
* Swollen or tender lymph nodes, liver, or spleen

Some of the symptoms mentioned above are quite common in everyday illnesses and do not necessarily indicate cancer. Nevertheless, it is wise to pay heed to these symptoms and seek advice from your doctor. If symptoms persist consult a specialist and get a full check up done. Early detection gives the best chance of cure.

How is Leukemia diagnosed?

When we visit a doctor with a problem, the doctor first listens to our complaints in detail and then examines us. In some cases it may be very easy to rule out cancer, using this simple measure but at other times, the doctor recommends tests to be carried out to enable him to confirm or disprove his suspicion.

After history taking and clinical examination, routine examination of the blood, urine, and stool is often the starting point. Depending on circumstances of the case, the doctor may then also recommend other special tests.

The only way to make the diagnosis of cancer is to examine cells or tissues from the suspected lesion under a microscope. Merely establishing the diagnosis of cancer is not enough to select appropriate treatment.

Although a simple blood smear examination may reveal that a patient has leukemia, it may not show what type of leukemia it is. To check further for leukemia cells or to decide the type of leukemia, the doctor examines a sample of bone marrow under a microscope. The doctor withdraws the sample by inserting a needle into a large bone (usually the hip) and removing a small amount of liquid bone marrow. This procedure is called bone marrow aspiration. A bone marrow biopsy is performed with a larger needle and removes a small piece of bone and bone marrow. If leukemia cells are found in the bone marrow sample, the doctor orders other tests to find out the extent of the disease. A spinal tap (lumbar puncture) checks for leukemia cells in the fluid that fills the spaces in and around the brain and spinal cord (cerebrospinal fluid). Chest X-rays can reveal signs of disease in the chest.

How is Leukemia treated?

Treatment for leukemia is complex. The treatment depends not only on the type of leukemia, but also on certain features of the leukemia cells, the extent of the disease, and whether the leukemia has been treated before. It also depends on the patient’s age, symptoms and general health.

The aim of treatment for acute leukemia is cure. Complete remission means no evidence of cancer. The primary treatment for acute leukemia is chemotherapy. Radiation therapy may be used in certain cases. Presently in some cases bone morrow transplantation is also done.

Chronic leukemia patients who do not have symptoms may not require immediate treatment. However, they should have frequent checkups to see how the disease is progressing. Treatment can often control the disease and its symptoms. However, chronic leukemia can seldom be cured.

Chemotherapy is treatment of cancer by drugs. Cancer chemotherapy employs cytotoxic drugs capable of arresting fast cellular growth. Chemotherapy also affects other fast growing normal cells in the body. Anti cancer drugs are normally given by injection into a vein. Chemotherapy is also given into the muscle, under the skin, cerebrospinal fluid (CSF), or taken by mouth. The treatment is given in cyclic form once in 3 to 4 weeks or weekly regimens to allow for adequate recovery of normal tissues and to ensure that cancer cells are killed at the same time. In general, AML treatment will use higher doses of chemotherapy over a shorter period of time, and ALL will take chemotherapy over a longer period of time.

Bone Marrow Transplant

Bone marrow transplantation is a newer type of treatment. First, high doses of chemotherapy with or without radiation therapy are given to destroy all of the bone marrow in the body. Healthy marrow is then taken from another person (a donor) whose tissue is the same as or almost the same as the patient’s. The donor may be a twin (the best match), a brother or sister, a parent or another person not related. The healthy marrow from the donor is given to the patient through a needle in a vein, and the marrow replaces the marrow that was destroyed. It is a very complicated and costly procedure. The procedure is reserved for relapsed cases or very aggressive cases.

There are generally four phases of treatment for acute leukemia. The first phase uses chemotherapy to kill as many of the leukemia cells as possible to cause the cancer to go into remission. Once a patient goes into remission and there are no signs of leukemia, a second phase of high-dose chemotherapy is given to attempt to kill any remaining leukemia cells. The third phase is preventive therapy, here high-dose systemic chemotherapy is given to the central nervous system (CNS) to kill any leukemia cells present there, or to prevent the spread of cancer cells to the brain and spinal cord, even if no cancer has been detected there. Radiation therapy to the brain may also be given, in addition to chemotherapy, for this purpose. The fourth phase of treatment uses chemotherapy for 2 years to maintain the remission.

Leukemia and its treatment can cause a number of complications and side effects. Patients need supportive care to prevent or control these problems and to improve their quality of life during treatment. Because leukemia patients get infections very easily, they may receive antibiotics and other drugs to help protect them from infections.

Anemia and bleeding are other problems that often require supportive care. Transfusions of red blood cells may be given to help reduce the shortness of breath and fatigue that anemia can cause. Platelet transfusions can help reduce the risk of serious bleeding. Leukemia and chemotherapy can make the mouth sensitive, easily infected and likely to bleed. Doctors often advise patients to have a complete dental exam before treatment begins.

What will happen after treatment for leukemia?

Every leukemia patient needs close monitoring following treatment. This is referred to as “follow-up”. Follow-up is an integral part of cancer treatment and is usually done by physical examination, blood examination, x-ray tests. Cancer patients need life long follow-up. Cancer treatment is never complete theoretically because cancer can occur at the primary site or anywhere else in the body at a later date. For several years after treatment, regular follow-up examination will be very important. The doctors will continue to watch for signs of disease, as well as for short-term and long-term side effects of treatment.

Can leukemia be prevented?

Although many cancers of adults can be prevented by lifestyle changes, which reduce certain risk factors, there is currently no known way to prevent childhood cancers, particularly leukemia.

Are there any tests for early detection of leukemia?

At present, there are no special tests recommended for the early detection of leukemia. The best policy for early diagnosis is prompt attention to the signs and symptoms of this disease. Close follow-up is important for children with a known genetic abnormality which might increase their risk of leukemia, children who have had another cancer treated with chemotherapy or combined chemotherapy and radiation therapy and children who have received organ transplants and are taking immune system-suppressing drugs.

What are the chances of cure in acute leukemia?

In ALL of children, the long-term survival (cure) is almost in the range of 70-80% (in western countries). In our country it is in the range of 50-55%. Adult ALL-Adults do not fare as well as children. The long-term survival is in the range of 40-45%. AML-the outcome is very dismal for children and adults, the long-term survival in the range of 20%. With high dose chemotherapy & BMT, the maximum long-term survival, which has been achieved is around 35-40%. CML-the only curative treatment is allogenic BMT. Other treatment only increases the survival. CLL-there is no curative treatment, but it is a disease of elderly people, who can maintain good quality of life up to 10 years with proper treatment.

Cancer is an unwanted purposeless and unchecked growth of any body tissue with a capability of spreading to other areas. Oral cancer starts in the mouth. The oral cavity includes the lips, the buccal mucosa (inside lining of the lips and cheeks), the teeth, the gums, the front two-thirds of the tongue, the floor of the mouth below the tongue, the hard palate and the area behind the wisdom teeth.

Oropharyngeal cancer develops in the part of the throat just behind the mouth. The oropharynx begins where the oral cavity stops. It includes the base of tongue, the soft palate, the area around the tonsils and the back wall of the throat.

The oral cavity and oropharynx assist with breathing, talking, eating, chewing and swallowing. The saliva keeps the mouth moist and helps digest food.

More than 90% of cancers of the oral cavity and oropharynx are squamous cell carcinoma, also called squamous cell cancer. Squamous cells are flat, scale-like cells that normally form the lining of the oral cavity and oropharynx.

Who is at risk?

Some of the more common risk factors are as follows:

* Tobacco: 90 % of patients with oral cavity and oropharyngeal cancer use tobacco and the risk of developing these cancers increases with the amount smoked or chewed and duration of the habit. Tobacco smoke from cigarettes, cigars or pipes can cause cancers anywhere in the oral cavity or oropharynx, as well as causing cancers of the larynx, lungs, esophagus, kidneys, bladder and several other organs. Patients who persist in smoking after apparent cure of their cancer can develop second cancers of oral cavity, oropharynx or larynx. Chewing tobacco is associated with cancers of the cheek, gums and inner surface of the lips.
* Alcohol: Alcohol consumption strongly increases the risk of oral cavity and oropharyngeal cancer.
* Irritation: Chronic (long-term) irritation to the lining of the mouth caused by poorly fitting dentures or irritation by a broken or jagged tooth is a risk factor for oral cancer.
* Vitamin Deficiency: Vitamin A deficiency is associated with an increased risk of developing cancer of the oral cavity and oropharynx.

What are symptoms of oral cancer?

* Sore in the mouth that does not heal (most common symptom)
* Non healing ulcer or growth anywhere in the mouth, which bleeds on touch and is relatively painless
* White or reddish-white patches (leukoplakia or erythroplakia) in the oral cavity.
* Pain in swallowing
* Difficulty in moving the jaw or tongue
* A lump or thickening in the cheek

What are the symptoms of Throat Cancer?

* Change in Voice
* Difficulty in swallowing food
* Recurrent unexplained ” sore throat”
* Difficulty in breathing
* Unexplained one sided ear-ache
* Lump in the neck

What is Leukoplakia, Erythroplakia?

Leukoplakia is a white area on the mucosa. Erythroplakia is a slightly raised red area that bleeds easily, if scraped. The most frequent causes of these conditions are smoking or chewing tobacco. Poorly fitting dentures rubbing against the mucosa and irritating it can also cause leukoplakia or erythroplakia.

Some of the symptoms mentioned above are quite common in everyday illnesses and do not necessarily indicate cancer. Nevertheless, it is wise to pay heed to these symptoms and seek advice from your doctor. Early detection gives the best chance of cure.

How can Oral Cancer be diagnosed?

When we visit a doctor with a problem, the doctor first listens to our complaints in detail and then examines us. To help find the cause of symptoms, the doctor evaluates a person’s medical history followed by complete head and neck exam including may be, nasopharyngoscopy, pharyngoscopy, or laryngoscopy.

The only way to make the diagnosis of cancer is to examine cells or tissues from the suspected lesion under a microscope-a procedure referred to as biopsy.

Staging the disease

If the diagnosis is cancer, the doctor wants to know about the stage (or extent) or the disease. Staging is done to find out whether the cancer has spread and if so, to which part of the body. Knowing the stage of the disease helps the doctor plan treatment. Some tests used to determine whether the cancer has spread include:

* CAT (or CT Scan) computed tomography – A computer linked to an X-ray machine creates a series of detailed pictures of areas inside the body.
* MRI (magnetic resonance imaging)- A powerful magnet linked to a computer makes detailed pictures of areas inside the body.
* Radio nuclide scanning – Scanning can show whether cancer has spread to other organs, such as the liver. The patient swallows or receives an injection of a mildly radioactive substance. A machine (scanner) measures and records the level of radioactivity in certain organs to reveal abnormal areas.

What are the treatments options for Oral Cancer?

The three common modes of cancer treatment are surgery, radiation therapy and chemotherapy. Surgery is one of the most commonly used modes of cancer treatment, wherein the surgeon removes a localized tumor in the mouth. If there is evidence that the cancer has spread, the surgeon may also remove lymph nodes in the neck. If the disease has spread to muscles and other tissues in the neck, the operation may be more extensive.

Chemotherapy is treatment of cancer by drugs. Cancer chemotherapy employs cytotoxic drugs capable of arresting fast cellular growth. Chemotherapy also affects other fast growing and dividing normal cells in the body. The treatment is given in cyclic form once in 3 to 4 weeks, to allow for adequate recovery of normal tissues and to ensure that cancer cells are killed at the same time.

Radiation therapy involves subjecting the subjecting the cancer-bearing region to radiation. Ionizing radiation damages of destroys the cancer cells and prevents them from growing and multiplying. Normally the treatment is divided over a period of one month, during which fixed doses of radiation are delivered each day. Radiation affects both normal as well as abnormal tissues. The schedule for radiation is planned in a way that it helps recovery of the normal tissues, while ensuring sustained tumor destruction. Usually most of the radiation treatment is given as an outpatient procedure. Radiotherapy treatment in itself is painless (just like an x-ray), and may take anything form a few seconds to several minutes.

Chemotherapy and Radiation therapy may cause side effects. But most side effects of radiotherapy and chemotherapy are reversible after treatment is over. Most oral cavity and oropharyngeal cancers can be prevented by avoiding risk factors whenever possible.

After treatment

Speech Therapy: After surgery or other treatment for oral cavity or oropharyngeal tumor, the patient may develop problems speaking or swallowing. When this occurs, a speech therapist may be consulted.

The importance of follow-up care

Follow up care after treatment for oral cancer is very important. Patients with cancer of the oral cavity and oropharynx are at risk for developing recurrences of new cancers in the head and neck area. Regular checkups ensure that changes in health are quickly noticed and if the cancer returns or a new cancer develops, it can be treated as soon as possible. Between scheduled appointments, people who have had oral cancer should report any health problem to their doctor as soon as it appears.

What is Breast Cancer?

Breast cancer is a tumor (a mass of abnormal tissue) within the breast. The majority of breast cancers begin in the milk ducts, however a small number start in the milk sacs or the lobes. Like other cancers, breast cancer if unchecked also has the ability to spread to different areas. The spread occurs mainly via the lymph ducts.

Who is at risk?

Breast cancer is far more common in women than in men although men can also get breast cancer. Some women are at a particularly higher risk.

• Age-risk of breast cancer increases with age.
• Family history of breast cancer i.e. women whose mother, grandmothers, aunts or sisters have developed breast cancer, are at an increased risk.
• Women, who previously had breast cancer, have a slightly higher chance of having breast cancer in the other breast.
• Women who started their periods (menarche) at an earlier age (before 12 years).
• Delayed childbearing, women who did not breast-feed their infants, or those who never had children.
• Late menopause (after 50 years)
• Obesity
• Diet rich in animal fat.

It is important to mention here that even if several risk factors are present, if does not necessarily mean that cancer will develop in these cases. It is equally important to mention that 75% of women who develop breast cancer have no known risk factors.

What are the signs and symptoms of Breast Cancer?

In a majority of women breast cancer is first noticed as a lump in the breast. There are other important signs and symptoms.

• Discharge from the nipple, particularly if blood stained.
• Change in shape or size of breast.
• Change in appearance of skin in a part of the breast.
• Rash on the nipples or surrounding areas.
• A lump or thickening inside the breast tissue.
• Inversion or turning in of the nipple.
• Swelling on the upper arm
• Swelling in the armpit

How can Breast Cancer be diagnosed?

Being in an area, which is easily accessible, the importance of early detection and diagnosis of breast cancer cannot be over-emphasized. Early detection and treatment can provide an almost 100% cure.

• Breast Self Examination (BSE) is important as it helps the patient to detect any changes occurring in her breast by herself. All women should be taught how to do a breast self-examination. However it is reassuring to note that all lumps in the breast are not cancerous, though one must check out with the doctor, when a lump is suspected.
• A Mammogram is an X-ray of the breast using a specially designed machine and is very useful in early diagnosis.
• Besides BSE every woman over 40 years must have Physical Examination of the breast done by a doctor, as part of the annual check up program.
• Following a clinical examination a Biopsy is the only definite way of confirming or ruling out breast cancer in suspected cases. A piece of breast tissue is taken for testing; this can be done by inserting a needle into the Breast (FNAC-fine needle aspiration cytology), or by an operation under local or general anesthesia. A pathologist then examines the breast tissue under the microscope to check for cancer cells.

What are the treatment options for Breast Cancer?

Surgery, chemotherapy and radiotherapy are the three options available for treating breast cancer. Often the treatment given may be a combination of 2 modalities, such as surgery followed by radiotherapy; or chemotherapy followed by surgery. Selection of the appropriate therapeutic approach depends on the location and size of the tumor, breast size, appearance on the mammogram, the extent of change in the tissues, and the preference of the patient and treating doctor.

• Surgery is the commonest modality of cancer treatment wherein the surgeon removes the affected tissues mostly a localized tumor. The types of surgery may vary. Mastectomy means total removal of breast tissue.
• Radiotherapy involves subjecting the tumor-bearing region either in part or whole to ionizing radiation using a variety of delivering systems.
• Chemotherapy using cytotoxic drugs capable of arresting fast growth of cancer cells.

Dos and Don’t – A few simple moves to help you move back to normal

Do’s

• Wear loose rubber gloves when working.
• Protect your arm from pinpricks, scratches, bruises, cuts or burns of any kind.
• Use an electric razor with a narrow head to shave as this decreases the risk of cuts and scratches.
• Use a thimble while stitching.
• Wear loose clothing and jewellery.
• Use insect repellant to avoid insect bites.
• In case you injure yourself, wash with an antiseptic solution and apply a sterile bandage.

Don’ts

• Never take injections or IV fluids or check your blood pressure or draw blood on the affected arm.
• Do not wear glass bangles.
• Do not expose the arm to excessive heat while cooking.
• Do not cut or pull cuticles on the affected arm.

Life after mastectomy (surgery done to remove the breast)

Because of the traditional thinking that femininity is associated with presence of breasts, the surgical removal of a breast can be traumatic and requires rehabilitation measures.

Detachable External Prosthesis, Silicone prosthesis and reconstructive surgery provide hope to these patients. Breast prosthesis are now available, to help patients feel as feminine as before and nobody can notice the difference.

The fitting of breast prosthesis should occur approximately 6-8 weeks following mastectomy. Careful measurements help in getting a well-fitted prosthesis. When fitted correctly, the prosthesis is comfortable and looks as natural as the healthy breast. Check for the following:

* Does the prosthesis fill out the cup of the bra both top and bottom.
* Check for similarity. Place the flats of your hands on top of both your natural breast and the prosthesis and compare size and softness.
* Check that there is not too much fullness in the underarm extension of your breast prosthesis. You can do this by feeling with the hand, then by swinging your arms back and forth. If fullness is greater than on your other side, then try a shape with less thickness in this area.
* Stand upright and look in the mirror to check shape and symmetry. The form should be completely covered by the bra.
* To check final result put on a soft blouse or T-shirt. No difference should be noticed in either breasts.

• What causes cancer?
  Though it is very difficult to pinpoint any definite cause, certain substances, known as carcinogens, can definitely increase your chances of getting cancer. For instance, people who smoke or chew tobacco are more prone to mouth, throat and lung cancer.  Contrary to popular opinion, beedi smoking is twice as dangerous as cigarettes. Amongst other known causes are asbestos, arsenic, pitch, tar, ultra-violet rays. Continued irritation of tissues can lead to cancer.
• Is cancer caused by a germ?
  There is no scientific evidence that cancer is caused by a germ.
• Does cancer come from a single bruise?
  A type of bone cancer may rarely result from a single severe injury. A single injury to soft tissue, such as the breast, will not give rise to cancer.
• What is the relation of food to cancer?
  In certain individuals, Vitamin B deficiency may result in changes in certain tissues, particularly of the mouth and lips, which may ultimately become cancerous. In general, however, so far as is known, no food or combination of foods has any influence on the cause or cure of cancer· but heavily fried food or abandoned red meat is today suspect. Green vegetables, cabbage may help in preventing certain cancers.
• Will irregularity in eating cause cancer of the stomach?
  There is no scientific evidence that it will, since cancer of the stomach may occur in people who eat most regularly.
• Does eating hot food cause cancer?
  There is little evidence that the temperature of food is an important factor in the development of cancer.
• Does the use of alcohol bear any relation to cancer of the stomach?
  Not so far as is known. Alcohol may have an unfavorable effect on stomach tissues, but no more so than other substances taken along with food or drink.
• Is cancer hereditary?
  There are probably inherited tendencies that may lead to cancers of different types. The presence of cancer in one or both parents should be a cause for greater alertness in looking for and recognizing suspicious symptoms in the individual. Cancer however is not inherited except for one type of eye cancer known as Retinoblastoma.
• Can cancer be transmitted by kissing or casual contact between persons or between persons and animals?
  No. There is no record of cancer having been transmitted by kissing or by any contact, accidental or otherwise, between individuals or between persons and animals (such as pets).
• Do corns become cancerous?
  Cancer may occur in any tissue of the body, but a corn could not as a rule develop into cancer.
• Do freckles turn into cancer?
  Simple freckles do not. However, flat moles containing pigment of a bluish-black colour and looking like dark freckles, may become cancerous and should be checked periodically.
• Do piles turn into cancer?
  No. Piles or hemorrhoids are merely enlarged veins in the rectal wall. Cancer is occasionally found in the tissue above the hemorrhoids, so “bleeding piles” should be examined carefully to determine whether cancer is also present. Rectal bleeding can occur due to cancer.
• Can one’s mental condition influence the course of cancer?
  Not so far as is known. Cancer is a disease of body cells. One’s mental condition has no effect on the course of the disease since this malignant change is apparently due to physical rather than mental processes.
• Does radiation cause cancer?
  Indiscriminate use of X-rays frequently may increase your chances of getting cancer.

• How can one guard against cancer?
  By preventing, so far as possible, prolonged irritation of any part of the body. Specifically, protection from overexposure to the sun and wind, prompt repair of all birth injuries to the womb, permitting the breasts to function normally early in life, repair of jagged teeth, avoidance of ill-fitting dental plates, avoidance of tobacco, correction of chronic constipation in short, elimination of unnecessary abuse of any tissue is a common sense method of helping to guard against cancer.
• What is meant by a “pre-cancerous lesion”?
  Any abnormal condition that, if permitted to continue, may develop into cancer with passage of time.
• What are some of the more important pre-cancerous lesions?
  White spots on mucous (lining) membranes, especially of the mouth; dry, scaly, itching patches on the skin, particularly the face; sores caused by jagged teeth and ill-fitting dental plates; dark colored moles subject to irritation; unrepaired injuries due to childbirth. These should all be investigated by a physician and adequately treated.
• What precautions should be taken to avoid cancer of the mouth?
  Keep the mouth clean. Have jagged teeth filed or removed. Do not use an ill-fitting dental plate, which causes a sore on the gums or cheek. If white spots appear in the mouth or on the tongue, stop the use of tobacco and see a doctor.
• What precautions should be taken to avoid cancer of the Skin?
  Dark colored moles and warts, if subject to irritation, should be removed. Itching, scaly patches on the skin should be treated before they become open sores. Fair-skinned people, especially, should avoid overexposure to direct sun rays. Recurrent fever blisters on the lip should be carefully examined. Keep the skin clean.
• Should all moles be removed?
  No. A flat colorless mole is probably as harmless as a freckle. Bluish-black hairless moles, especially when subject to irritation, should be removed. Any mole or wart showing changes in size or colour or if bleeding should be promptly and completely removed and the tissue examined by a pathologist to determine if cancer is present.
• Can immunity to cancer be acquired as with diptheria or typhoid fever?
  Production of immunity is possible only in diseases caused by germs. As cancer is not caused by germs, immunity cannot be developed against it as far as our knowledge goes today.
• Why do many people wait before consulting a physician when cancer may be present or suspected?
  Primarily because of fear or ignorance of the signs of cancer and of the vital importance of securing treatment early. Some people also think there is a social disgrace in having cancer and so hide the fact from their physicians and often from friends and relatives. This is not a justifiable attitude.
• Can a tuberculous person ever have cancer?
  He can. The presence of tuberculosis or any other disease gives no assurance that cancer may not also develop.
• Why don’t the white corpuscles in the blood kill cancer?
  The chief function of white blood corpuscles is to protect the body against bacteria or germs. They kill germs and combat infection. Current research is being undertaken to promote such activity by certain kinds of white blood corpuscles.
• How can we control cancer?
  By a prompt visit to a physician, when suspicious signs or symptoms appear. Intelligent alertness by the individual may well save his life. By having complete, annual physical examinations, as a routine. Women over 35 should be examined twice a year. By confirming diagnosis at the earliest possible moment, followed by adequate treatment. By a widespread knowledge, both lay and professional, of the character of cancer, its causes, methods of spread, and by recognizing the value of early diagnosis and adequate treatment, as the means of protection.

• How can you tell if you have cancer without seeing a doctor?
  You cannot. A regular thorough physical check-up is your best guard against cancer, plus an examination when one of the seven danger signals or warnings appears. You are the first line of defense against cancer because, you alone, can recognize a danger signal and heed its warning.
• What are some of the early signs of cancer?
  There are seven common ones. They are often called the Seven Danger Signals of Cancer:
• Change in bowel or bladder habits.
• A Sore that does not heal.
• Unusual bleeding or discharge.
• Thickening or lump in breast or elsewhere.
• Indigestion or difficulty in swallowing.
• Obvious change in wart or mole.
• Nagging cough or hoarseness.

You should at once consult a doctor upon the appearance of any sign.

• Is pain an early symptom of cancer?
  No, except in a cancer involving bone or nerve tissue. Pain usually is a late symptom and when it occurs, the growth is often far advanced.
• Why should cancer be diagnosed and treated early?
  The sooner it is found it is less likely to have spread to other parts of the body.
• How long is it safe to wait before consulting a physician?
  Any delay is dangerous. Go at once to a doctor and ask for a thorough examination.
• Why are periodic examinations necessary?
  The earlier a cancer is treated the greater the chance of a cure. Through periodic examinations cancer may be detected in its early stages, before the individual has noticed any sign or symptom in himself.
• Where can you get a check-up?
  The Indian Cancer Society runs several check-up clinics. You can find out which is closest to you.
• What comprises a thorough check-up?
  Careful inspection of the entire body surface, heart, blood vessel and lung examinations. Examination by sight and touch of accessible organs, such as the mouth, nostrils, ears, throat, chest, breasts, womb, and rectum. Examinations of stomach and intestines by X-ray when indicated. Microscopic examination of blood, urine, and any suspected tissue. In women, special examination of the breasts. Other examinations as indicated, such as of the eye, bladder and prostate by appropriate methods.
• Is the check-up painful?
  The check-up takes only an hour and is completely painless. You may phone and get an appointment.
• What is mammography?
  Mammography is a special X-ray examination of the breast tissues.
• What is a pap smear?
  The Papanicolaou Test, (or Pap smear) is in fact a microscopic examination of the cells exfoliated from the uterus and cervix. The doctor takes a swab from the tissue surface for examination. This test warns patients of the presence of cancer even as tiny as a pin-head or gives evidence of a lesion which is a pre-cursor of cancer.
• Is bleeding always a sign of cancer?
  No, but bleeding should be promptly and carefully investigated, to determine if it is due to cancer. A small percentage of bleeding nipples are due to cancer. Bleeding from other body openings, such as rectum or bladder, should be carefully investigated to rule out cancer. Unnatural vaginal bleeding, especially after the change of life can be a very suspicious sign of cancer.
• Does blood in bowel movements indicate cancer?
  Movements streaked with bright blood or the occurrence of black or “tarry” stools should lead to prompt and thorough investigation. The assumption that rectal bleeding is merely due to hemorrhoids, or piles, is most dangerous, since such bleeding may be due to a multiplicity of causes, including cancer, which require prompt treatment.
• Does blood in the urine indicate cancer?
  It may, but it may also be caused by conditions other than cancer. A careful examination is essential to rule out cancer.
• Is it true that cancer generally develops among people in poor health?
  There is no known relation between the status of one’s health and the development of cancer. Regular checkups provide the best safeguard against cancer as well as against various other diseases.
• How can we diagnose cancer of the stomach?
  The best method is an X-ray examination. The outline of the interior of the stomach when filled with a radio-opaque material such as barium sulphate, can give clues to the presence of cancer. Chemical tests of stomach contents are also of value. Only in late stages a lump may be felt through the body wall.
• How are cancers in the head and neck region diagnosed?
  The most important test is an examination of the mouth and throat with a head light and mirror, to check for ulcerations, growths and white patches on the lining membrane called mucosa. A “Biopsy” specimen is always taken to confirm the clinical diagnosis. This is then reported by an experienced Histo-pathologist in the laboratory. In India nearly 40% of Cancer arises in this region, in men.
• What techniques are used to detect cancer?
  Xerographs, mammographs, thermographs, CAT Scans, etc. are some of the highly sophisticated methods of cancer detection, in addition to clinical and pathological examinations.

• How should cancer be treated?
  By surgery, chemotherapy, X-ray or cobalt therapy and high density electron therapy or a combination of all these in the earliest possible stage of the disease. All these methods are available in India at various Hospitals.
• Are X-ray treatments good for all kinds of cancer?
  No. Treatment depends on type and location of the growth. Some cancers will not respond to X-ray or radium treatment but must be treated by surgery or with hormones and Radioactive isotopes.
• What is the difference in the action of X-rays and radium or cancer tissue?
  There is no essential difference. When correctly used both will destroy cancer cells without seriously injuring the normal cells with which they come in contact.
• How are radium or radioactive isotopes used?
  Radium in hollow needles radioactive isotope wires are inserted into the cancerous growth are in the tissue surrounding it, and removed after treatment is concluded. Radium or radioactive isotopes in suitable containers may also he placed in contact with the growth as in cancer of the skin or cervix. In larger quantities they may be used at a distance from the body, the rays passing through an opening in the container into the cancerous growth.
• How effective is surgery?
  Surgery is most effective in the early stages when cancer has not yet spread. Major advances in plastic and reconstructive surgery, and anaesthesiology have ensured a very high degree of success.
• What is chemotherapy?
  Chemotherapy implies treatment with anticancer drugs and injections. Today we have a large number of highly effective drugs for cancer control.
• Can the spread of cancer be stopped or retarded temporarily?
  At times only. Certain types of cancerous growths, which can not be expected to be curable, may be controlled temporarily by proper treatment. Sooner or later, however, these growths may fail to respond to further treatment.
• What should you do if you think you may have cancer?
  Report at once for a thorough physical examination.
• Is cancer curable?
  More than 80% of cancers today are completely curable if treated early. At times, however, cures have been obtained after the cancers have been present for a long time. The type of cancer always has an important bearing on its curability.
• Is it ever possible to state that a cancer has been completely cured? If so, how much time must pass before the “cure” is recognized?
  After a cancer patient has been treated and has remained free of recurrence of disease for a period of five years, the chances for reappearance of the tumor are extremely small. (In a few rare instances however cancer has recurred ten or twenty years later, so that a semi-annual physical examination is a must for cancer patients).
• If you have been cured of cancer, can you develop another cancer? In the same place? In some other part of the body?
  Yes. Regardless of a patient’s past medical history, including the successful treatment of a previous cancer, he/she should be examined at regular intervals. Because of the tendency for cancer to  reappear at the place of a previously existing growth or nearby, a patient should have a regular follow-up at least every six months. A new cancer may also appear at in another part of the body.
• Is there any known vaccine cure for cancer?
  No. A vaccine is of value only against a disease due to a germ. Cancer is not caused by a germ; therefore, serums are of no value in its treatment.
• Is it ever safe to rely on salves to “cure” cancer?
  No. No a paste or salve can not penetrate the tissues far enough to destroy deep-seated cancer cells.
• Is there any chemical that destroys cancerous tissue?
  There is some evidence that a few chemical substances such as the nitrogen mustards and other chemicals can destroy certain kinds of cancers. This treatment is known as chemotherapy.
• Will hormones cure cancer?
  There is evidence today to indicate that treatment with certain hormones may prolong life, and alleviate pain and suffering in certain breast and uterine cancers and in prostate cancers.
• What is Immunotherapy?
  Immunotherapy is new development based on the theory that the human body can be taught to defend itself against diseases including cancer.
• What is the latest and most successful of the recently reported cancer treatments?
  While many “cures” are constantly being evaluated by various laboratories, surgery, X-ray treatment, and chemotherapy remain the chief weapons in the physicians’ fight to cure cancer. Certain hormones and isotopes also offer some promise of assistance in their fight but it is much too early to claim that they can be called ‘cures”.
• Is any real process being made in cancer research? Along what lines?
  Real progress is being made in cancer research, which has thrown much new light on normal and abnormal growth processes. However, the goal of finding the cause of cancer and thus its prevention is still in the future. Various avenues of investigations have recently opened up on all sides: in chemistry by a study of the hormones and chemicals and the complex role they play in cancer; in physics by application of radioactive materials and the development of X-rays of very high voltages; in surgery by more radical excision of tumors; and of through a study of enzymes, genetics, nutrition, cytochemistry, etc. Scientific disciplines of various types are being utilized to study the complex nature of cancer.
• What are your chances of getting cured?
  More than 80% of the patients treated adequately in the early stages can be cured. Your chances of recovery are excellent, if you report for treatment very early after cancer has arisen.
• Can you lead a normal life after cancer?
  The sooner you come for treatment, the better the quality of life after cancer. Most cancer patients can return to their normal lives, even during treatment.

• Are cancers in men and women different?
  There are no fundamental differences in cancers appearing in men and women.
• What forms of cancer are more common among men than women?
  Cancer of the mouth, throat, gullet, stomach, rectum, larynx, lung, kidney, bladder, skin and brain are all more common in men than in women.
• Does smoking or tobacco and paan chewing cause cancer?
  Smoking and chewing are known to cause cancer of the mouth, throat, bladder, lungs etc. Therefore, it is best to play it safe and, if you smoke or chew make every effort to stop.
• Can cancer result from sexual intercourse?
  No. There is no known relationship between cancer and sexual activity on the part of the male or female. However women who have multiple sexual partners run a greater risk of getting cervix cancer.
• Is cancer of the prostate common? At what age does it generally occur?
  Yes, cancer of the prostate is one of the most common forms of cancer in older men. Men should be on guard against this form of cancer especially as they approach 60. A thorough physical examination, including a rectal examination, is the only way to discover this hidden cancer early enough for cure.

• Do more women than men die of cancer?
  No. The misconception that cancer is primarily a woman’s disease is due to the frequency of cancer of the breast and cancer of the reproductive organs in women, in comparison with the more varied occurrence of cancer in men. Cancer in men often occurs in the less accessible areas of the body and is sometimes more difficult to diagnose and treat than cancer in women.
• Does cancer occur more frequently among married or unmarried women?
  Reports from death certificates show that above the age of 40, the cancer death rate is higher among single women than among married women of the same ages. Single women have higher death rates from cancer of the breast and married women have more cancer of the uterus. Physicians believe that having the first child around the age of 20 is a preventive against cancer of the breast and that injury at childbirth or having multiple sexual partners increases the risk of cancer of the uterus.
• Is there danger in watching a lump in the breast to see what happens?
  Yes, a very grave danger. Time is the most important factor in the control of cancer and waiting to “see what happens” may permit a curable cancer to become incurable by preventing it to spread to other tissues.
• Are all breast lumps cancerous?
  No, only a small percentage of lumps are cancerous. A careful pathological examination of the excised lump can definitely determine if it is due to cancer.
• What precautions should be taken to avoid cancer of the breast?
  Do not wear garments that press the breast tissue tightly against the chest wall. Every woman should have her breasts examined semiannually by a physician. She should request her physician to instruct her in the proper technique for examining her own  breasts in the erect and reclining positions and should examine her breasts once a month shortly after her “period”.
• How should you examine your breasts?
• Sit or stand in front of a mirror, with your arms relaxed at your sides, and examine your breasts carefully for any changes in size and shape. Look for any puckering or dimpling of the skin, and for any discharge or change in the nipples. Compare one breast with the other.
• Raise both your arms over your head, and look for exactly the same changes. See if there’s been any change since you last examined your breasts.
• Note :From Step 3 to Step 8, you should feel for a lump or thickening in the breast tissues.Lie down on your bed, or on the floor, put a pillow or a bath towel under your left shoulder, and place your left hand under your head. With the fingers of your right hand held together flat, press gently but firmly with small circular motions to feel the inner, upper quarter of your left breast, starting at your breastbone and going outward toward the nipple line. Also feel the area around the nipple.
• With the same gentle pressure next feel the lower, inner parts of your breast.
• Now bring your left arm down to your side, and still using the flat part of your fingers, feel under your armpit.
• Use the same gentle pressure to feel the upper, outer quarter of your breast from the nipple line to where your arm is resting.
• And finally, feel the lower, outer section of your breast, proceeding from the outer part to the nipple.
• Repent the entire procedure, from Step 3 as described above, for the right breast.
• What precautions should be taken to avoid cancer of the uterus (womb)?
  Have all birth injuries repaired soon after they occur. Have all unnatural vaginal discharges investigated. Up to the age of thirty-five have an annual examination; thereafter a semi-annual one. Bleeding after the change of life calls for a physician’s examination at once. Avoid multiple sex partners.
• Do uterine fibroids ever become cancerous?
  Fibroid tumors only very rarely undergo malignant change.

• Can cancer develop in children? At what age?
  No age is free from cancer. Certain forms of cancer, especially of the eyes and blood are most occasionally found in young children.
• If a parent dies of cancer are the children more likely to have the disease?
  The answer is no. In many families where a parent has had cancer, the disease does not appear in the children. Again, a person whose family has no record of cancer may develop it. A tendency to develop breast cancer however runs in families.
• Does cancer develop more quickly in children than in older people?
  The rate of growth at any age depends upon the type of cancer, though cancer does grow faster at younger ages.
• If detected in time, can cancer in a child be cured more quickly than in an adult?
  The cure of cancer has little relationship with age. It depends upon the extent of growth at the time it is detected, and the adequacy of the treatment given as well as the type of cancer detected.

• How can cancer deaths be reduced?
  By four means:
• Early diagnosis; the responsibility of the patient in having himself/herself regularly checked by a physician; and the responsibility of the physician in recognizing the possibility of cancer and referring for further diagnostic procedures and proper treatment.
• Adequate and prompt treatment.
• Discoveries of newer and more effective means of treatment,
• The ultimate discovery of the various causes of cancer. These last two will come from research laboratories and clinical investigators. From these stem the basic principles of the cancer control programme of education, research and service of the Indian Cancer Society.
• Is there any disgrace in having cancer?
  There is no more disgrace in having cancer than in having a broken arm.
• Does cancer usually cost more to cure, than other major diseases?
  It often does. Here again, it depends upon the type of cancer you have and how much must be done to treat it. Many hospitals provide free treatment to those who cannot afford to pay.
• Why are quacks dangerous?
  For the following reasons, among others:
• Few quacks are medically trained; therefore, they have no fundamental knowledge about cancer.
• They cause the patient to lose valuable time that should be used to obtain correct treatment.
• The pastes and “medicines” used by quacks have no value in curing cancer.
• The quack takes the patient’s money under false pretenses, thus depriving him of the means for obtaining competent treatment in time to enable him or her to be cured.
• How can I tell a quack from a reputable physician?
  If a person advertises a cure, guarantees a cure, or employs a method of diagnosis or treatment not generally accepted or endorsed by the medical profession, may he classed as a quack. No reputable, ethical physician will do any of these things.
• Is cancer frightening?
  Only if you neglect it. Today more and more people are not only winning their fight against cancer, they are also able to lead normal, active lives.

Cancer begins when cells in a part of the body start to grow out of control. There are many kinds of cancer, but they all start because of this out-of-control growth of abnormal cells.

Cancer cell growth is different from normal cell growth. Instead of dying, cancer cells keep on growing and form new cancer cells. These cancer cells can grow into (invade) other tissues, something that normal cells cannot do. Being able to grow out of control and invade other tissues are what makes a cell a cancer cell.

In most cases the cancer cells form a tumor. But some cancers, like leukemia, rarely form tumors. Instead, these cancer cells are in the blood and blood-forming organs.

When cancer cells get into the bloodstream or lymph vessels, they can travel to other parts of the body. There they begin to grow and form new tumors that replace normal tissue. This process is called metastasis.

No matter where a cancer may spread, it is always named for the place where it started. For instance, breast cancer that has spread to the liver is still called breast cancer, not liver cancer. Likewise, prostate cancer that has spread to the bone is called metastatic prostate cancer, not bone cancer.

Different types of cancer can behave very differently. For example, lung cancer and breast cancer are very different diseases. They grow at different rates and respond to different treatments. That is why people with cancer need treatment that is aimed at their own kind of cancer.

Not all tumors are cancerous. Tumors that aren’t cancer are called benign. Benign tumors can cause problems – they can grow very large and press on healthy organs and tissues. But they cannot grow into other tissues. Because of this, they also can’t spread to other parts of the body (metastasize). These tumors are almost never life threatening.

What Is Cancer?

The body is made up of hundreds of millions of living cells. Normal body cells grow, divide, and die in an orderly way. During the early years of a person’s life, normal cells divide faster to allow the person to grow. After the person becomes an adult, most cells divide only to replace worn-out, damaged, or dying cells.

Cancer begins when cells in a part of the body start to grow out of control. There are many kinds of cancer, but they all start because of this out-of-control growth of abnormal cells.

Cancer cell growth is different from normal cell growth. Instead of dying, cancer cells keep on growing and form new cancer cells. These cancer cells can grow into (invade) other tissues, something that normal cells cannot do. Being able to grow out of control and invade other tissues are what makes a cell a cancer cell.

In most cases the cancer cells form a tumor. But some cancers, like leukemia, rarely form tumors. Instead, these cancer cells are in the blood and blood-forming organs.

When cancer cells get into the bloodstream or lymph vessels, they can travel to other parts of the body. There they begin to grow and form new tumors that replace normal tissue. This process is called metastasis (muh-tas-tuh-sis).

No matter where a cancer may spread, it is always named for the place where it started. For instance, breast cancer that has spread to the liver is still called breast cancer, not liver cancer. Likewise, prostate cancer that has spread to the bone is called metastatic prostate cancer, not bone cancer.

Different types of cancer can behave very differently. For example, lung cancer and breast cancer are very different diseases. They grow at different rates and respond to different treatments. That is why people with cancer need treatment that is aimed at their own kind of cancer.

Not all tumors are cancerous. Tumors that aren’t cancer are called benign (be-nine). Benign tumors can cause problems – they can grow very large and press on healthy organs and tissues. But they cannot grow into other tissues. Because of this, they also can’t spread to other parts of the body (metastasize). These tumors are almost never life threatening.